عرض مصدر شبه فلز

'''أشباه الفلزات''' (الأصل الإغريقي للكلمة يعنى شبيه الفلز) مثل [[فلز|الفلزات]] [[لا فلز|واللافلزات]] هي إحدى [[أسماء مجموعات العناصر الكيميائية|السلاسل الكيميائية]]، وتتميز بخصائص معينة من ناحية [[تأين|التأين]] و[[رابطة كيميائية|الترابط]]. تتميز أشباه الفلزات بخصائص متوسطة بين الفلزات واللا فلزات، ولا توجد طريقة محددة للتفريق بين أشباه الفلزات و[[فلز|الفلزات الحقيقية]]، ولكنها عمومًا تكون [[شبه موصل]]ة أكثر من كونها [[عازل]]ة.
تقع أشباه الفلزات في [[الجدول الدوري]] على هيئة خط مائل من البورون إلى البولونيوم وتكون العناصر الموجودة في أعلى يسار الخط هي الفلزات، بينما تقع العناصر الموجودة أسفل يمين الخط ضمن اللافلزات.
لا تقتصر أشباه الفلزات فقط على هذه العناصر ولكنها توجد أيضًا في [[سبيكة|السبائك]] و[[مركب كيميائي|المركبات]].
== التعريفات ==
=== التعريف القائم على الحكم ===
المادة الفوقية هي عنصر له خصائص في الوسط، أو خليط من المعادن واللافلزات، والتي يصعب تصنيفها إما كمعدن أو مادة غير معدنية. يعتمد هذا التعريف عام على الصفات الفاصلة التي يتم الاستشهاد بها باستمرار في المؤلفات العلمية.{{refn|Definitions and extracts by different authors, illustrating aspects of the generic definition, follow:
* "In chemistry a metalloid is an element with properties intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals."<ref>[[#Cusack1987|Cusack 1987, p.&nbsp;360]]</ref>
* "Between the metals and nonmetals in the periodic table we find elements&nbsp;... [that] share some of the characteristic properties of both the metals and nonmetals, making it difficult to place them in either of these two main categories"<ref>[[#Kelter2009|Kelter, Mosher & Scott 2009, p.&nbsp;268]]</ref>
* "Chemists sometimes use the name metalloid&nbsp;... for these elements which are difficult to classify one way or the other."<ref name="Hill 2000, p. 41">[[#Hill2000|Hill & Holman 2000, p.&nbsp;41]]</ref>
* "Because the traits distinguishing metals and nonmetals are qualitative in nature, some elements do not fall unambiguously in either category. These elements&nbsp;... are called metalloids&nbsp;..."<ref>[[#King1979|King 1979, p.&nbsp;13]]</ref>
More broadly, metalloids have been referred to as:
* "elements that&nbsp;... are somewhat of a cross between metals and nonmetals";<ref>[[#Moore2011|Moore 2011, p. 81]]</ref> or
* "weird in-between elements".<ref>[[#Gray2010|Gray 2010]]</ref>|group=n}} تُعتبر صعوبة التصنيف سمة رئيسية في تلك الموادّ. تحتوي معظم العناصر على مزيج من الخواص المعدنية وغير المعدنية،<ref name="Hopkins">شبه فلز</ref> ويمكن تصنيفها وفقًا لمجموعة الخصائص التي تكون أكثر وضوحًا.<ref name="Hopkins" />{{refn|1=[[ذهب]], for example, has mixed properties but is still recognised as "king of metals". Besides metallic behaviour (such as high electrical conductivity, and [[أيون]] formation), gold shows nonmetallic behaviour:
* It has the [[Table of standard electrode potentials|highest]] [http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/redoxeqia/introduction.html electrode potential]
* It has the third-highest [[طاقة تأين]] among the metals (after [[زنك]] and [[زئبق]])
* It has the lowest [[ألفة إلكترونية]]
* Its [[كهرسلبية]] of 2.54 is highest among the metals and exceeds that of some nonmetals ([[هيدروجين]] 2.2; [[فسفور]] 2.19; and [[رادون]] 2.2)
* It forms the Au<sup>−</sup> auride [[أيون]], acting in this way like a [[هالوجين]]
* It sometimes has a tendency, known as "[[محب للذهب]]", to bond to itself;<ref>[[#Wiberg2001|Wiberg 2001, p.&nbsp;1279]] {{استشهاد بويب |مسار=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/redoxeqia/introduction.html |عنوان=نسخة مؤرشفة |تاريخ الوصول=20 يوليو 2018 |تاريخ أرشيف=8 مايو 2020 |مسار أرشيف=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508160351/http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/redoxeqia/introduction.html |حالة المسار=bot: unknown }}</ref>
on halogen character, see also Belpassi et al.,<ref>[[#Belpassi2006|Belpassi et al. 2006, pp.&nbsp;4543–4]]</ref> who conclude that in the aurides MAu (M = [[فلز قلوي|Li–Cs]]) gold "behaves as a halogen, intermediate between [[بروم|Br]] and [[يود|I]]"; on aurophilicity, see also Schmidbaur and Schier.<ref>[[#Schmidbaur2008|Schmidbaur & Schier 2008, pp.&nbsp;1931–51]]</ref>|group=n}} تفتقر العناصر الموجودة في الهوامش أو بالقرب منها إلى غموض واضح بدرجة كافية لتحديد خصائصها المعدنية أو غير المعدنية، وتُصنف على أنها أشباه فلزات.<ref name="Hopkins" />
يتم التعرف على [[بورون|البورون]] [[سيليكون|والسيليكون]] [[جرمانيوم|والجرمانيوم]] [[زرنيخ|والزرنيخ]] [[إثمد|والإثمد]] [[تيلوريوم|والتيلوريوم]] بشكل شائع كأشباه فلزات.<ref name="مولد تلقائيا3">شبه فلز; شبه فلز; شبه فلز</ref>{{refn|Mann et al.<ref name="Mann">[[#Mann2000|Mann et al. 2000, p.&nbsp;2783]]</ref> refer to these elements as "the recognized metalloids".|group=n}} يُضاف في بعض الأحيان واحدٌ أو أكثر من [[سيلينيوم|السيلنيوم]] أو [[بولونيوم|البولونيوم]] أو [[أستاتين|الأستاتين]] إلى القائمة باختلاف العالم المؤلف للمرجع العلمي.<ref name="مولد تلقائيا3" /> قد يُستبعد البورون في بعض الأحيان بمفرده في أو يُستبعد معه السيليكون.<ref name="Russell20054012">شبه فلز; شبه فلز</ref> لا يُعتبر التيلوريوم ضمن قائمة أشباه الفلزات في بعض الأحيان أيضًا.<ref name="مولد تلقائيا3" /> كما تم التشكيك في إدراج الأنتيمون، والبولونيوم، والأستاتين ضمن أشباه الفلزانالميتالويدات.<ref name="Hopkins" />
يتم تصنيف العناصر الأخرى في بعض الأحيان على أنها أشباه فلزات. تشمل هذه العناصر<ref>شبه فلز. Dunstan lists Be, Al, Ge (maybe), As, Se (maybe), Sn, Sb, Te, Pb, Bi, and Po as metalloids (pp.&nbsp;310, 323, 409, 419).</ref> [[هيدروجين|الهيدروجين]]،<ref name="مولد تلقائيا3" /> [[بيريليوم|والبريليوم]]،<ref name="Hopkins" /> [[نيتروجين|والنيتروجين]]،<ref name="Hopkins" /> [[فسفور|والفسفور]]،<ref name="مولد تلقائيا3" /> [[كبريت|والكبريت]]،<ref name="مولد تلقائيا3" /> [[زنك|والزنك]]،<ref name="Hopkins" /> [[غاليوم|والغاليوم]]،<ref name="Hopkins" /> [[قصدير|والقصدير]]، [[يود|واليود]]،<ref name="Russell20054012" /> [[رصاص|والرصاص]]،<ref name="Hopkins" /> [[بزموت|والبزموت]]، [[رادون|والرادون]].<ref name="مولد تلقائيا3" /> كما يُستخدم مصطلح أشباه الفلزات للعناصر التي تُظهر بريق معدني وموصلية كهربائية، وهي العناصر المترددة، مثل الزرنيخ والأنتيمون والفاناديوم والكروم والموليبدنوم والتنغستن والقصدير والرصاص [[ألومنيوم|والألمنيوم]].<ref name="Russell20054012" /> تُعتبر [[فلز بعد انتقالي|الفلزات بعد الانتقالية]] (مثل الكربون أو النيتروجين) التي يمكن أن تشكل سبائك بالمعادن<ref name="Hopkins" /> أو تُعدّل خصائصها<ref name="Hopkins" /> في بعض الأحيان كأنواع من أشباه الفلزات.
=== التعريف القائم على المعايير ===
لا يوجد تعريف مقبول على نطاق واسع لأشباه الفلزات، ولا يوجد أي تقسيم للجدول الدوري إلى المعادن والفلزات واللافلزات؛<ref name="Russell20054012" /> تساءل هوكس<ref name="Hopkins" /> عن جدوى وضع تعريف محدد، مشيرًا إلى أنه يمكن العثور على حالات شاذة في عدة محاولات. ووصفت شارب<ref name="Hopkins" /> تصنيف عنصر على أنه شيء «تعسفي».
تعتمد خصائص أشباه الفلزات على معايير التصنيف المستخدمة.<ref name="Hopkins" /> اعترف ايمسلي بأربعة أنواع من أشباه الفلزات (الجرمانيوم والزرنيخ والأنتيمون والتيلوريوم)، وصنّف جيمس وآخرون<ref name="Hopkins" /> اثنا عشر عنصرًا (الأربعة الذين اعترف بهم ايمسلي بالإضافة إلى البورون، [[كربون|والكربون]]، والسيليكون، [[سيلينيوم|والسيلينيوم]]، [[بزموت|والبزموت]]، [[بولونيوم|والبولونيوم]]، [[موسكوفيوم|والموسكوفيوم]] [[ليفرموريوم|والليفرموريوم]]. يتم تضمين سبعة عناصر في المتوسط ضمن هذه القوائم؛ كما تميل ترتيبات التصنيف الفردية إلى مشاركة أرضية مشتركة وتختلف في الهوامش غير المحددة.<ref>شبه فلز "The boundary between metals and metalloids is indefinite&nbsp;..."; شبه فلز: "Although the elements are conveniently described as metals, metalloids, and nonmetals, the transitions are not exact&nbsp;..."</ref>{{refn|Jones<ref>[[#Jones2010|Jones 2010, p.&nbsp;170]]</ref> writes: "Though classification is an essential feature in all branches of science, there are always hard cases at the boundaries. Indeed, the boundary of a class is rarely sharp."|group=n}}{{refn|The lack of a standard division of the elements into metals, metalloids and nonmetals is not necessarily an issue. There is more or less, a continuous progression from the metallic to the nonmetallic. Potentially, a specified subset of this continuum can serve its particular purpose as well as any other.<ref>[[#Kneen1972|Kneen, Rogers & Simpson 1972, pp.&nbsp;218–220]]</ref>|group=n}}
يشيع استخدام معيار كمي واحد مثل [[كهرسلبية|الكهرسلبية]]،<ref name="Hopkins" /> تتمتع أشباه الفلزات بقيم [[كهرومغناطيسية]] تتراوح من 1.8 أو 1.9 إلى 2.2.<ref name="Russell20054012" /> تشمل الأمثلة الأخرى كفاءة التعبئة (جزء الحجم في [[بنية بلورية|البنية البلورية]] التي تشغلها الذرات) ومعيار نسبة جولدهامر-هيرتسفيلد.<ref name="Hopkins" /> تحتوي أشباه الفلزات المعروفة بشكل عام على كفاءة التعبئة تتراوح بين 34٪ و 41٪.{{refn|The packing efficiency of boron is 38%; silicon and germanium 34; arsenic 38.5; antimony 41; and tellurium 36.4.<ref>[[#VanSetten2007|Van Setten et al. 2007, pp.&nbsp;2460–1]]؛ [[#Russell2005|Russell & Lee 2005, p.&nbsp;7]] (Si, Ge); [[#Pearson1972|Pearson 1972, p.&nbsp;264]] (As, Sb, Te; also black P)</ref> These values are lower than in most metals (80% of which have a packing efficiency of at least 68%),<ref>[[#Russell2005|Russell & Lee 2005, p.&nbsp;1]]</ref> but higher than those of elements usually classified as nonmetals. (Gallium is unusual, for a metal, in having a packing efficiency of just 39%.<ref>[[#Russell2005|Russell & Lee 2005, pp.&nbsp;6–7, 387]]</ref> Other notable values for metals are 42.9 for bismuth<ref name="ReferenceB">[[#Pearson1972|Pearson 1972, p.&nbsp;264]]</ref> and 58.5 for liquid mercury.<ref>[[#Okajima1972|Okajima & Shomoji 1972, p.&nbsp;258]]</ref>) Packing efficiencies for nonmetals are: graphite 17%,<ref>[[#Kitaĭgorodskiĭ1961|Kitaĭgorodskiĭ 1961, p.&nbsp;108]]</ref> sulfur 19.2,<ref name="Neuburger">[[#Neuburger1936|Neuburger 1936]]</ref> iodine 23.9,<ref name="Neuburger"/> selenium 24.2,<ref name="Neuburger"/> and black phosphorus 28.5.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>|group=n}} وتساوي نسبة جولدهامر-هرتسفيلد تقريبًا مكعب [[نصف قطر ذري|نصف القطر الذري]] مقسومًا على [[حجم مولي|الحجم المولي]]،{{refn|More specifically, the <span id="Gold"></span>''Goldhammer-[[كارل هيرزفيلد]] criterion'' is the ratio of the force holding an individual atom's [[إلكترون تكافؤ]]s in place with the forces on the same electrons from interactions ''between'' the atoms in the solid or liquid element. When the interatomic forces are greater than, or equal to, the atomic force, valence electron itinerancy is indicated and metallic behaviour is predicted.<ref name="مولد تلقائيا2">[[#Herzfeld|Herzfeld 1927]]؛ [[#Edwards2000|Edwards 2000, pp.&nbsp;100–3]]</ref> Otherwise nonmetallic behaviour is anticipated.|group=n}} وتُعتبر مقياس بسيط لكيفية وجود عنصر معدني، وتتمتع أشباه الفلزات الُمعترف بها وجود نسب من حوالي 0.85 إلى 1.1 ومتوسط 1.0.<ref name="Hopkins" />{{refn|More specifically, the <span id="Gold"></span>''Goldhammer-[[كارل هيرزفيلد]] criterion'' is the ratio of the force holding an individual atom's [[إلكترون تكافؤ]]s in place with the forces on the same electrons from interactions ''between'' the atoms in the solid or liquid element. When the interatomic forces are greater than, or equal to, the atomic force, valence electron itinerancy is indicated and metallic behaviour is predicted.<ref name="مولد تلقائيا2"/> Otherwise nonmetallic behaviour is anticipated.|group=n}} اعتمد المؤلفون الآخرون عل معايير أخرى مثل السلوك الذري{{refn|Atomic conductance is the electrical conductivity of one mole of a substance. It is equal to electrical conductivity divided by molar volume.<ref name="Hill 2000, p. 41"/>|group=n}} أو [[عدد تناسقي|العدد التناسقي]].<ref>شبه فلز: "One criterion for distinguishing semi-metals from true metals under normal conditions is that the [[عدد تناسقي]] of the former is never greater than eight, while for metals it is usually twelve (or more, if for the body-centred cubic structure one counts next-nearest neighbours as well)."</ref>
كتب جونز عن دور التصنيف في العلوم، ولاحظ أن «(التصانيف) عادةً ما يتم تحديدها بأكثر من سمتين».<ref name="Hopkins" /> استخدم ماسترتون وسولينسكي<ref>شبه فلز list B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te as metalloids, and comment that Po and At are ordinarily classified as metalloids but add that this is arbitrary as so little is known about them.</ref> ثلاثة معايير لوصف العناصر الستة المعترف بها بشكل شائع كأشباه للفلزات: فأشباه الفلزات لها [[طاقة تأين|طاقات تأين]] تساوي حوالي 200 كيلوكالوري / مول (837 كيلوجول / مول) وقيم تيار كهربية قريبة من 2.0. كما قالوا أن أشباه الفلزات تُعتبر أشباه موصلات بشكل نموذجي، على الرغم من أن الأنتيمون والزرنيخ (شبه الجسيم من منظور فيزياء) لهما توصيلات كهربائية تقترب من المعادن. ويُعتقد في أن السلينيوم والبولونيوم لا يندرجا في هذا التصنيف، في حين تظل حالة الأستاتين غير مؤكدة.{{refn|Selenium has an ionization energy (IE) of 225&nbsp;kcal/mol (941 kJ/mol) and is sometimes described as a semiconductor. It has a relatively high 2.55 electronegativity (EN). Polonium has an IE of 194&nbsp;kcal/mol (812 kJ/mol) and a 2.0 EN, but has a metallic band structure.<ref>[[#Kraig2004|Kraig, Roundy & Cohen 2004, p.&nbsp;412]]؛ [[#Alloul2010|Alloul 2010, p.&nbsp;83]]</ref> Astatine has an IE of 215&nbsp;kJ/mol (899 kJ/mol) and an EN of 2.2.<ref>[[#Vernon|Vernon 2013, pp.&nbsp;1704]]</ref> Its electronic band structure is not known with any certainty.|group=n}}
== الاستخدامات الشائعة ==
تكون أشباه الفلزات هشة للغاية بحيث لا توجد استخدامات هيكلية لها في أشكالها النقية.<ref name="Russell20054012" /> وتستخدم هذه المركبات ومكوناتها كمكونات للسبائك، والعوامل البيولوجية (المٌبيدة والغذائية والطبية)، والمُحفزات، ومثبطات اللهب، والنظارات، ووسائط التخزين البصرية والإلكترونيات البصرية، والألعاب النارية، وأشباه الموصلات والإلكترونيات.{{refn|Olmsted and Williams<ref>[[#Olmsted1997|Olmsted & Williams 1997, p.&nbsp;975]]</ref> commented that, "Until quite recently, chemical interest in the metalloids consisted mainly of isolated curiosities, such as the poisonous nature of arsenic and the mildly therapeutic value of borax. With the development of metalloid semiconductors, however, these elements have become among the most intensely studied".|group=n}}
=== السبائك ===
[[ملف:Copper_germanium.jpg|بديل=Several dozen metallic pellets, reddish-brown. They have a highly polished appearance, as if they had a cellophane coating.|تصغير|عندما تمتزج سبائك النحاس والجرمانيوم، بنسب على الأرجح تٌفارب 84 ٪ النحاس و16 ٪ جرمانيوم <ref name="Russell20054012" /> [[فضة|بالفضة]]، تكون النتيجة نشوء الفضة الإسترليني المقاومة للتأكل.]]
لاحظ عالم المعادن البريطاني سيسيل ديش في كتابة في وقت مبكر من تاريخ [[مركب بين فلزي|المركبات بين الفلزية]]، أن «بعض العناصر غير المعدنية قادرة على تشكيل مركبات ذات طبيعة معدنية مميزة بالمعادن، وبالتالي قد تدخل هذه العناصر في تكوين السبائك». ارتبط السيليكون والزرنيخ والتيلوريوم، على وجه الخصوص، مع العناصر المكونة للسبيكة.<ref name="Hopkins" /> اقترح فيليبس وويليامز<ref name="Hopkins" /> أن مركبات السيليكون والجرمانيوم والزرنيخ والأنتيمون مع [[فلز بعد انتقالي|الفلزات بعد الانتقالية]] «من المحتمل أن تصنف على أنها سبائك».
ومن بين المركبات الفلزّية الخفيفة، تكون السبائك التي تحتوي على [[فلز انتقالي|فلزات انتقالية]] ممثلة تمثيلاً جيدًا. يمكن أن يشكل البورون مركبات السبائك وسبائك مع هذه المعادن، إذا كانت n> 2.<ref name="Hopkins" /> يستخدم الفيروبورن (المُحتوي على 15 ٪ من البورون) لإدخال البورون إلى [[فولاذ|سبائك الصلب]]؛ وتدخل سبائك [[نيكل|النيكل]] والبورون في مكونات سبائك اللحام وتركيبات الصناعات الهندسية. تستخدم سبائك السيليكون مع الحديد والألومنيوم على نطاق واسع في صناعات الصلب والسيارات، على التوالي. كما يشكل الجرمانيوم العديد من السبائك، وتُعتبر سبائكه مع [[عناصر المجموعة الحادية عشرة]] الأكثر أهمية.<ref name="Hopkins" />
تستخدم أشباه الفلزات الأثقل في صُنع السبائك أيضًا. يمكن للزرنيخ أن يشكل سبائك مع المعادن، بما في ذلك [[بلاتين|البلاتين]] [[نحاس|والنحاس]]؛<ref name="Hopkins" /> كما يُضاف إلى النحاس وسبائكه لتحسين مقاومة التآكل<ref name="Hopkins" /> ويبدو أنه يمنح نفس الفائدة عند إضافته إلى [[مغنيسيوم|الماغنيسيوم]].<ref name="Hopkins" /> يشتهر الإثمد بأنه سبيكة ممتازة في الصناعات، بما في ذلك مع معادن العملات. وتشتمل سبائكه على [[بيوتر|البيوتر]] (بيوتر) (وهي سبيكة من القصدير مع ما يصل إلى 20٪ من الإثمد) ونوع معدني (سبيكة رصاص بها ما يصل إلى 25٪ من [[إثمد|الإثمد]]).<ref name="Hopkins" /> يُشكل التيلوريوم بسهولة سبائك مع الحديد، مثل سبائك القيروتيليريوم (تحتوي على 50-58 ٪ التيلوريوم)، والنحاس، في شكل سبائك التيلوريوم النحاس (تحتوي على 40-50 ٪ التيلوريوم).<ref name="Hopkins" /> يستخدم الفيروتيليريوم كمثبت للكربون في صب الصلب.<ref name="Hopkins" /> من العناصر غير المعدنية التي غالبًا ما يتم التعرف عليها غالبًا على أنها من مركبات أشباه الفلزات، يُستخدم السيلينيوم في شكل الفيروزيلنيوم (50-58٪ من السيلينيوم) - لتحسين قابلية استخدام [[فولاذ|الصلب]] المقاوم للصدأ.<ref name="Russell20054012" />
== انظر أيضًا ==
* [[عنصر كيميائي]]
* [[خلاف تسمية العناصر الكيميائية|جدل حول تسمية العناصر]]
* [[مجموعة (جدول دوري)]]
* [[تسمية نظامية للمركبات العضوية|التسمية النظامية للمركبات العضوية]]
== ملاحظات ==
{{مراجع|group=n|colwidth=45em}}
== مراجع ==
{{مراجع|20em}}
=== فهرس ===
{{Div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}}
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{{نهاية المراجع}}
{{Div col end}}
== لمزيد من القراءة ==
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